Before October 1957 the term satellite referred to essentially one thing--a small body that revolved around a larger astronomical object. Thus all the moons circling the planets of the solar system are satellites. Today these bodies are specifically called natural satellites.
The Space Age was born on Oct. 4, 1957, when the first artificial satellite, Sputnik 1, was placed in orbit by the Soviet Union. Now any artificial object that revolves around a larger astronomical object is called an artificial satellite. The idea of an artificial satellite was probably first proposed by the American clergyman Edward Everett Hale in his collection 'The Brick Moon, and Other Stories', published in 1899. Today there are hundreds of artificial satellites circling the Earth. They are used for communication, weather study, navigation, military observation, and other purposes. Various scientific research satellites have been launched into orbit around the moon, Venus, Mars, and the sun.
How Artificial Satellites Work
Most satellites are lifted into orbit by multistage rockets. The United States has also placed satellites in orbit by using the space shuttle. A satellite that is to orbit the Earth is positioned at least 100 miles (160 kilometers) above the Earth's surface so that atmospheric drag will not slow the satellite. At this height, once it is moving fast enough, the satellite's motion is governed by the same laws that govern the motion of natural satellites and it travels around the planet in a nearly circular orbit.
The time required for a satellite to complete one revolution around the Earth depends on its altitude. A satellite located 22,300 miles (35,900 kilometers) above the Earth's surface, for example, takes exactly 24 hours--or one Earth day--to circle the planet. Such an orbit is said to be synchronous, because it is synchronized with the Earth's rotation. If the satellite moves in the same direction as the Earth's rotation and its orbit lies over the equator, it will appear from the Earth to be positioned at a fixed point in the sky. The satellite is said to be in geostationary orbit.
Geostationary orbits are often used for communications satellites. The geostationary orbit belongs to the family of geosynchronous orbits. Satellites in geosynchronous orbits describe a single or double loop around a point on the equator once every 24 hours.
Polar orbits follow a path perpendicular to the Earth's equator, in the plane that passes through both the north and south poles. In one day, the Earth will rotate once under a polar orbital path. This makes most polar orbits useful for satellites designed to study the entire surface of the Earth or the planet's weather.
Throughout the life of the satellite, the satellite's orbit and attitude (the direction it points) must be adjusted. Generally, satellites have on-board rockets for this purpose. The rocket may be fired to accelerate the satellite and move it to a higher orbit or to decelerate it and move it lower. Firing the rocket to the side changes the direction in which the satellite points. The power to run satellites usually comes from solar cells. When the satellite is in the Earth's shadow, auxiliary batteries provide power. Some experimental satellites are powered by thermoelectric generators that change heat from radioactive material into electricity.
The information gathered by a satellite is often stored in the form of electronic signals that are sent by radio to ground stations. Many satellites have on-board computers that not only receive, store, and transmit information, but also control the satellite's operation and orbit. Uses of Artificial Satellites Satellites are put to a wide variety of uses. Applications range from scientific research to military reconnaissance.
Scientific Research.
The first satellites were used to study the Earth's upper atmosphere and inner space. Today scientific satellites study a far greater range of objects. Earth-orbiting satellite observatories can observe celestial objects without the interference caused by the Earth's atmosphere. The Orbiting Astronomical Observatories and the International Ultraviolet Explorer, for example, studied faint astronomical objects in the ultraviolet region of the electromagnetic spectrum.
Communications.
The major application of artificial satellites has been to provide long-distance communication links. Telephone companies, cable television stations, newspapers and magazines use communications satellites to transmit data to various parts of the globe. A group of satellites used in communication among Earth stations forms a satellite communication system. Such systems may provide international communication, as does Intelsat, which includes some 400 Earth stations located in 150 countries, or they provide domestic communication only, as does Canada's Telesat system. By the end of the 20th century satellites had a greatly increased capacity to handle telecommunications signals, and integrated services digital networks were being developed to create a global voice, data, text, and video system.
Meteorology.
Meteorological satellites use highly sensitive instruments to obtain data for use in the computer-generated atmosphere models that are the basis of modern weather forecasting. The World Meteorological Organization uses internationally operated satellites.
Navigation.
It is possible to determine the exact location of a ship on Earth by using the signals of several satellites to calculate the relative position of the ship and the satellites. A system that uses laser-beam signals can determine positions to within less than 1 inch (2.5 centimeters). The hand-held Global Positioning System receiver, which can be used on a ship, car, plane, or land, takes signals from at least three of 24 satellites orbiting Earth and correlates their data to determine the position of the receiver.
Surveying.
The techniques used by navigation satellites are also used to make accurate maps of remote areas of the Earth. The United States Landsat system provides data to ground stations around the world. Geologists and other specialists use this data for mineral exploration, crop forecasting, flood control, soil conservation, reforestation, and land management.
Military.
Countries use military surveillance and reconnaissance, or spy, satellites to monitor the activity of other nations. Some, including the United States Big Bird and the Soviet Cosmos satellites, took photographs of such military activity. The so-called ferret satellite recorded radio and radar transmissions. In the late 20th century, both the United States and the Soviet Union made efforts to develop killer satellites designed to destroy enemy spacecraft and satellites. They also investigated the possibility of arming satellite stations with advanced weapons to destroy distant targets, such as enemy nuclear missiles.
Piloted satellites started with the Soviet Vostok 1, which was launched in 1961 with one passenger. Both the United States and the Soviet Union later developed manned space stations, including the United States Skylab station and the Soviet Salyut and Mir stations.
Excerpted from The Complete Reference Collection Copyright © 1994, 1995, 1996, 1997 The Learning Company, Inc. All Rights Reserved.